BLACK HOLE THEORY

		Richard K. Clingempeel
		May 12, 1979

A "black hole" is an area in space warped by gravitation so powerful that theorists say it warps the greatest natural powers we can comprehend - time and space. These regions warp time and space to an infinite point: its density is infinite, which can stop, and perhaps digest, time and space as we know it. It is a difficult subject to explain, yet it can be said that it was as if man had grabbed hold of space and pulled said space (and time) into it^¹ - a sort of cosmic dead end.

In the constellation Cygnus (6,000 light years distant) astronomers have found an invisible companion to a giant blue star. This companion, designated Cygnus X-1, draws steadily from its blue-giant companion - perhaps causing a ring, or accretion disk, to form around the black hole. Alhough this is speculation on my part, many scientists believe this is a plausible conjecture^². As of late, another candidate presents itself for inclusion into our list of black holes, designated GX-339-4. The GX represents the statin, in this case the radio telescope at Grand Banks, Australia; the 339-4 represents the stellar coordinates. Another possible black hole was deected by the High Energy Astronomical Observatory 2 (HEAO-2) in the Pleades cluster. In this star cluster are some of the oldest stars in the known universe.

Stars with more than eight times our suns' mass are those within the Supernova spectrum of events^³. They continue past the burning of Carbon (as our sun, referred to as "Sol" by astronomers, will do in a few hundred million years), consuming the heavier elements such as Oxygen, Neon, and Magnesium. These fusion reactions release small amounts of energy, though far less than the amount of energy released in the Hydrogen-Helium fusion process.

The later reactions must occur faster and faster so that in a few hundred million years, the star has converted most of its mass into progressively heavier elements (see The Periodic Table). With the production of Iron, the energy liberating process necessary for the continued existence of the star stops working. To make heavier elements, the star must consume energy. The Iron nuclei are liberated into their constituent protons and neutrons; thus more and more energy is consumed⁴.

In a complicated series of interactions, the star continues to implode while the outer layer suddenly receeds to the critical stage of compression. However, the energy of the free electrons is now sufficient to transform Iron into an isotope of Manganese, which will not decay. With this electron pressure removed, a catastrophic collapse sets in. The result is the setting up of a shock front, raising the temperature inside the envelope to several billion degrees Kelvin (K=K+32^{^o}F), thus indicating a thermonuclear explosion. This explosion literally blows away the envelope, and the occurrences of a supernova follow.

After this final energy liberation, the core collapses upon itself again and again until it reaches the "fetal black hole" stage - a Neutron star. A Neutron star is the point at which the only thing remaining that would be recognizable by us is the neutron. After the final collapse to the black hole, I theorize that even the sub-atomic particles^⁵ may be compressed into some unrecognizeable form.

One of the most well-known physicists, Dr. J. Robert Oppenheimer, once stated that if a star was heavy enough, no force, not nuclear force, Quark force, nor electrostatic repulsion, could resist that kind of gravity^⁶. The density of the mass, as I calculate it, should reach 1.2689 x 10^¹⁶ times the density of sea water at STP (Standard Temperature and Pressure), and as Einsteins' theory of special relativity indicates, space and time would come to an end at the center of a black hole. "There would be no escape, only annhilation so clean it would seem mystical."

In 1965, Roger Penrose was able to prove that a collapsed star would result in a real, physical, unpredictable singularity⁷. Penrose proved, in effect, that space and time could have an end. He stated later that any collapsing material would either hit the singularity, or miss - thus escaping through a "wormhole" to another point in space and time^⁸. Around the same period of time, English Physicists N.D. Birrell and Paul Davies showed that if such a "worm hole" existed, fluctuations in the fields around them would slam the "worm hole" shut.

In 1973, Stephen Hawking, reknowned English physicist/theoretician, turned the theory of black holes inside-out when he discovered that some black holes were not completely black; they can emit particles, and eventually explode, becoming "white holes" from which energy and particles gush. I personally hypothesize that black holes, under conditions stated earlier in this paper, could eventually become Quasars, entities only a few hundred thousand miles in diameter (est.), yet which give off as much energy as several galaxies. Stephen Hawking views this as the probable final stage of life before it evaporates, leaving behind empty space^⁹. Hawking showed that the loss of energy owing to radiation would eventually deflate a black hole, allowing it to evaporate. Someday it may explode, depending on the structure of matter, like a 100 million megaton bomb.

Now it is time to discuss what many people consider "taboo" - time dillation effect. Simply put, time dillation effect is time itself altering as one approaches the speed of light. The time dillation effect is real and is used to our advantage everyday in large particle accelerators like the 30 terawatt accelerator at Brookhaven National Laboratories^¹⁰. The debris from a typical experiment usually consists of elementary particles (previously mentioned: Quarks) that exist for one-trillionth of a second.

If time did not slow down for these particles, they would travel less than a millimeter before complete decay. Such particles are traveling so close to the speed of light that their time is slowed down to factors of 10,000 or more^¹¹. It takes 2.0 x 10^{^-23} seconds (0.00000000000000000000002 sec.) for a fast elementary particle to through its nucleus. This means that a compound sucked into a black hole would have its molecular breakdown slowed to such a degree as to eventually allow one complete atom to strike the "plasmolyzed" nucleus of a black hole.

In recent years, Hawking has discovered that black holes do emit photons, electrons, and neutrinos (not to be mistaken for neutrons). Neutrinos give us an idea as to the age of a star, regarless of its size or form (Stars, Quuasars, Pulsars, and Black Holes emit these particles). Thus, I will discuss neutrinos in a little more detail, as I feel they will prove to be important in determining age and "potential" of a black hole.

A neutrino is a tiny particle of radioactive nature , escapes readily from the sun or any stellar object, and does not readily interact with matter as we know it, thus, it is very difficult to detect, whereas the highly energetic photon released in the same stellar reaction is absorbed and re-comitted many times before it escapes as light from said stellar object^¹².

A neutrino flux emitted by our sun is at least one-hundred times less than expected, and this is cause for alarm in Physics, because these results mean one or more of the following:

a	the interior of the sun is NOT undergoing nuclear reactions and is shining off of light previously emitted;
b	these nuclear reactions turn on and off, and we are presently on the "OFF" cycle;
c	our knowledge of nuclear energy generation is wrong, and neutrinos are not produced as predicted; or
d	perhaps there is a layer of the sun that is not transpareent to neutrinos^¹³.

I would not hesitate to say that this would be a major problem if any one of the above was found to be true, and should apply to stars similar in composition to our own; yet, logically, the same would hold true for considerably larger stars, with the exception of the very largest stars. I tend to follow Occams razor, and hence observation C seems closest to the "observed" truth.. However, I do not believe our knowledge is inaccurate, rather that it is incomplete. From this we can ascertain that regardless of how sure we are of our knowledge, there is still knowledge unbounded awaiting us in space.

"If you take a mass and its gravity, and move it rapidly, you can create a new field; moreover, the stronger gravity field can be made to appear in a place where there is no mass or gravity - and it can be either attractive or repulsive." -Einstein^¹⁴

The primordial black hole (the oldest) the size of a proton would have an attractivity of 10^¹⁵ grams, whereas a larger black hole (thus, younger) would have an attractivity of 8.3075 x 10^¹⁶ atmospheres (1 atm = 760 mm/Hg at STP). Therefore, a Deuterium atom, found in relatively large quantities in space, would (theoretically) approach the black hole at 1.4005 x 10^¹⁹ Km/sec. (100,000,000 Km/sec or 1.0 x 10^⁸ is the speed of light). This has some import in my final theorizing, so keep this in mind.

For some more background information, it would take a temperature of 100 Million^{^o}C to fuse a deuterium atom into tritium, yet when this occurs^¹⁶, as we saw previously ("envelope temperature is relative to mass and gravity in dynes"), output would exceed 30 terawatts^¹⁷. We must remember that this is one deuterium atom, and not a group of atoms. Another important note is that X-ray gas temperature goes up to 500 Million^{^o}Kelvin, a temperature not normally attributed to stellar physics.

This represents the data obtainable by May 12, 1979, and the writer in no way indicates this paper as the final word. Radio Telescope and like data have yet to be analyzed and that could yield pertainent information, and I am sure there are a few unread books on the subject out there.

The density of a black hole is so great, in relation to its mass, that scientists have, until recently, believed that nothing - not even light or X-rays - could escape them^¹⁸. Then our superscientists focussed their attention on this phenomena. Penrose, Bell, Chandeskar, and Hawking and the like have discovered that things can occur inside black holes, and particles can move around outside the plasmolyzed nucleus, or as in the isotope of Manganese smashed into a liquid as previously mentioned. H.K. Bell, using the purest diamonds available^¹⁹, in their record pressure of 1.72 megabars (1 Mbar=10^¹⁶dynes per cm^²; 1 dyne= 2.248 x 10^{^-6} lbs)^²⁰. This record is nothing when compared to the trillions of megabars produced by an "old" black hole the size of a proton producing 10^¹⁵ (One billion) Kg. of gravitational attraction^²¹.

This warpage of time and space would be noticeable in an imaginary space craft programmed to pass into an orbit just over the "point of no return," with sensitive cesium clocks on-board and being computer monitored display time relative to another set of calibrated cesium clocks in a satellite light-weeks or -months away from the calculated time dillation effect zone. I theorize that it will slow down time and in effect nullify all forces as we understand them, such that light-speed will be as walking, and flying in a light-ship around the influence of a black hole will take a correspondinng increase in power to reach escape velocity.

Due to the fluctuations of the positive and negative staticon (up quark) production, being either attractive or repulsive, it would be very difficult to find a spot in space that would not be influenced by the gravitational attraction of a black hole. These positive and negative reactions are caused by the violent actions I believe occur within the "light shield" - actions violent beyond our comprehension. These actions, I believe, later give way to a resurgence of energy in what we knw as a Quasar. These actions/reactions are probably of a radioacive nature due to their first detection by the HEAO-2 sattelite^²², but on a scale far beyond our capabilities to reproduce.

Could it be that when a black hole resurges (possibly from another universe) it pours forth new elements? Elements we could use in a "star-drive?" Maybe it is merely a reversed polarity difference - same atomic structure, but differences in where the protons, neutrons, and electrons are (i.e. - antimatter of a sort). I believe the fusion of these antiparticles will be a form of power for us in the future.

Free particles of deuterium, representing the "positive" universe, in a cloud of minimum specific mass, spiral "in" towards the Plasmolyzed nucleus at a fantastic rate (near c). This deuterium enters the gravitational corona of the subject black hole. Making its final orbit, it winds its way down until gravity overcomes the objects forward momentum into "z-phase" kenetic energy.

This envelope adds mass or disperses mass as the "other" universe accepts and "swallows" the energy captured by the black hole, or rejects the energy because of its instability in "our" universe, and thereby spewing forth vast amounts of energy. One thing is certain - in my opinion - and that is the portal to the "other" universe must be of sufficient size to admit at least one atom from "our" universe.

Research in the field of Physics, and Astrophysics particularly, is rewarding, and bring about questions that have solutions that you and I need to know. Such research will see the rise of star travel in the 21st century if we learn to apply our knowledge peacefully.

Eberhart, Jonathan and Dietrick Thomsen. Results from HEAO-2, Science News, April 7, 1979, p. 229

Heiles, Carl. The Structure of the Interstellar Medium, Scientific American, Jan. 1978, p. 74

Overby, Dennis. Interview: The Wizard of Space and Time - Stephen Hawking, OMNI, Feb. 1979, p. 45

Yonas, Gerold. Fusion Power with Particle Beams, Scientific American, Nov. 1978